The Essay About the Jinn

The Essay About the Jinn



A'oodhu billaahi minash-Shaytaanir-Rajeem
Bismillaahir-Rahmaan nir-Raheem

------------------------------------------


"IBN TAYMEEYAH'S ESSAY ON THE JINN (DEMONS)", Abridged,
Annotated and Translated by Abu Ameenah Bilal PHILLIPS.

Based on "Eedah ad-Dalaalah fee 'Umoom ar-Risaalah", from volume
19 of "Majmoo' Al-Fataawaa" (A Collection of Religious Rulings);
volume 35 of "Majmoo' Al-Fataawaa" and Ibn Taymeeyah's classic,
" Al-Furqaan Bayna Awliyaa ar-Rahmaan wa Awliyaa ash-Shaytaan."

Note: All remarks that are bracketed in the text are made by
Bilal Phillips


THE AUTHOR

Ahmad ibn 'Abdul-Haleem ibn Taymeeyah was bron in the town of
Harran [near Edessa, in what was once Northern Iraq, but is now
called Orfa and is a part of Turkey.], in the year 1263 CE. His
father was a leading scholar of the Hanbalite school of Islamic
law and so was his grandfather, who authored Muntaqaa
al-Akhbaar, the text of ash-Shawkaanee's Hadeeth classic Nayl
al-Awtaar.

Ibn Taymeeyah mastered the various disciplines of Islamic study
at an early age and read extensively the books of the various
sects and religions in existence at that time. Much of his time
and effort was spend defending the orthodox Islamic position
against a tidal wave of deviation which had swept over the
Muslim nation. Consequently, he faced many difficulties from
both the prominent sectarian scholars of his time and from the
authorities who supported them. His clashes with them led to
his imprisonment on numerous occasions. Ibn Taymeeyah also
fought, not only against internal enemies of Islaam, but also
against its external enemies by both his Fatwaas (Islamic legal
rulings) and his physical participation in battles. His ruling
allowing the taking up arms against groups which recognized the
Shahaadataan (declaration of faith) but refused to uphold some
aspects of the fundamental principles of Islaam, greatly
affected the resistance movement against the Tartars who had
declared their acceptance of Islaam but did not rule according
to divine law.

During these struggles he wrote countless books and treatises
demonstrating his extensive reading and knowledge, not only of
the positions of the early scholars, but also those of the legal
and theological schools which had subsequently evolved. Ibn
Taymeeyah also had a major effect on the open-minded schoars of
his day, most of whom were from the Shaafi'ite school of law.
Among the most famous of his students were IBN KATHEER,
ADH-DHAHABEE and IBN AL-QAYYIM. The author died in 1328 while
in prison in Damascus for his Fatwaa against undertaking
journeys to visit the graves of saints [Ibn Taymeeyah's ruling
was based on the authentic statement reported by Abu Hurayrah
wherein the Prophet Muhammad (saws) said, "Do not undertake a
journey except to three masjids; this masjid of mine, Masjid
al-Haraam (Makkah) and Masjid al-Aqsaa (Bayt al-Maqdis)."
Collected by Al-Bukhaaree and Muslim]. His Fatwaa had been
distorted by his enemies to say that he forbade visiting the
Prophet Muhammad's (saws) grave.



CHAPTER THREE: DEMONIC VISIONS

Those involved in incantations and oaths often swear by some
devils to help them against others. Sometimes the evil JINN
fulfil their request but frequently they do not, especially when
the JINN against whom help is sought is honored among them.
Neither the one chanting incantations nor his incantations have
any power to force the devils to help them. The reciter of
incantations earnestly entreats a being whom he considered great
- which may or may not be the case - to harm others who may
conceivably be greater. In the case where someone entreats the
JINN to harm someone whom the JINN hold in high esteem, they
will ignore him. In fact, it may prevent them from even
responding at all. Their situations is quite similar to that of
humans except that human beings are generally more intelligent,
truthful, just and trustworthy while the JINN tend to be
ignorant, untruthful, oppressive and treacherous.

The point is that though the oaths and incantations of
devil-worshippers may contain statements of idolatry and
disbelief, they are frequently ineffective against the JINN.
When requested to kill or apprehend another JINN who has
possessed a human, the JINN will often mock those who make the
request by falsely giving them the impression that they killed
or detained the offending JINN. This is especially so in cases
where humans believe in the illusions created by the JINN. The
JINN usually communicate by either visions or voices ["The
gleaning of hidden information by way of visions and voices has
been well documented among clairvoyants and mediums. 'A medium'
may be defined as a person through whose agency or through whose
orgainsm there are received communications ostensibly from
deceased human beings or other discarnate or remote entities.
In what is called 'clairvoyant mediumship' -now popularly known
as channelling- the meduim 'sees' or 'hears' the deceased
friends and relatives of persons persent and relays messages
from them. Generally speaking, the experiences concerned seem
not to have the distinctness of ordinary perception but are
rather a seeing or hearing 'in the mind's eye' or ear.
Sometimes, however, the figures seen or voices heard may attain
as hallucinatory vividness; the medium's experience then
resembles that of one who witnesses an apparition." (Benjamin B.
Wolman. ed., Handbook of Parapsychology, New York, Van Nostrand
Reinhold Company, 1977, pp, 579-580)] with those seeking
information among the idol-worshippers, Christians, Jews, and
heretical Muslims driven astray by the devils. JINNS may take
the form of a live picture portraying whatever the sorcerers and
fortunetellers wish to know about. When these deviants see the
image of what they sought, they then inform other humans about
it. Some of them may know that the image is actually an
illusion, while others may be deluded into believing that they
are actually wintessing the real scene. JINNS may also make
humans hear the voice of those whom they call upon who are far
away. Such cases are frequent among idolaters, Christians, Jews
and ignorant Muslims who seek refuge in those whom they consider
holy. When some devotees call on their spiritual masters for
help saying, "Oh my Lord so and so!" the JINN will address them
in the voice of their masters. When the masters answer their
request, the JINN, in turn, answer the devotees in the masters'
voice. This has happened to many people some of whom are known
to me. The devils will often respond while talking the form of
the one besought, whether dead or alive, even if he is unaware
of those who call on him. Those committing Shirk in this
fashion believe that the person beseeched has actually replied
when in fact it is the JINN replying. This frequently happens
to Christians who call on those whom they edify, whether dead or
alive, like George or other holy figures [ROME, Feb 24 1989
(AFP) - A retired Italian roadman Renato Baron claims that he
has been seeing and talking to the Virgin Mary for nearly three
years now. Visions by Baron and about THIRTY others have
attracted tens of thousands of people from Italy, France,
Belgium, and West Germany to a hill near Venice, causing huge
traffic jams.

Ambridge, Pennsylvania - A small Roman Catholic Church in a
western Pennsylvania mill town is preparing for a deluge of
pilgrims after a reported Good Friday miracle in which the eyes
of a statue of Christ suddenly closed. The Rev. Vincent
Cvitkovic, a Franciscan friar, and many of his parishoners
reported that the eyes of a life-size statue which depicts the
crucified Christ, which have been open for 60 years, closed
during a prayer meeting. (The Times, Monday, April 10th 1989,
no. 63, 364, p.8)

In 1981 a group of five children were playing on a hill just
outside of a village in the Yugoslavian Republic of Bosnia -
Herzegovina called Medugorje when a vision of a beautiful woman
claiming to be the Blessed Virgin Mary appeared before them.
Since 1981 some seven to eight million pilgrims from different
countries, cultures and Christian traditions have climbed up the
holy hill of Medugorje. At 7:30 every evening pilgrims and
tourists anxiously crowd around the dark rectory of a nearby
church staring at the stream of light which will signify that
once more the children, who still gather there daily, are having
their private audience with the Blessed Mother. (IRF, Newsletter
of the International Religious Foundation, Inc., Vol II, No. 6,
Nov-Dec 1987, pp 1-2).

Divine grace (salvation) is felt to be especially potent in
places visited by Jesus Christ or Saints or by Mary; where they
have appeared in visions. Major pilgrimage centers include
Lourdes where visions of the Virgin Mary were first seen in 1858
and where healing has been occuring since that time. (John R.
Hinnells, ed., Dictionary of Religions, Middlesex, England:
Penguin Books Ltd., 1984, p. 284)]. It also occurs to heretical
Muslims who call on the dead or those not present, and the
devils take the form of the one called upon even without him
realizing it. I know of many cases where this has occurred and
the people called upon have told me that they did not know that
they were called upon, though those beseeching them for help saw
their images and were convinced that it was the actual person.
More than one person has mentioned that they called on me in
times of distress, each telling a different story about how I
have responded. When I told them that I never answered any of
them nor did I know that they were calling on me, some said that
it must have been an angel. I told them that angels do not
benefit those committing SHIRK and that it was actually a devil
trying to further misguide them.

Sometimes the Jinn will take the form of those admired and stand
at 'Arafat, and those who believe well of him will think that he
actually stood in 'Arafat. Many others have also been actually
carried by the devils to 'Arafat and other sacred places. In
such cases they pass the Meeqaat (boundaries that may not be
crossed while on Hajj, around Makkah) without formally entering
the state of Ihraam, or performing many of the obligatory rites
of Hajj like making the Talbeeyah (chant of response to God's
call) or circulating the Ka'bah, and walking between the mounts
of Safaa and Marwah. Among them are some who do not even pass
through Makkah, others who stand at 'Arafat without performing
the pre-requisite rite of casting stones at the Jamaraat etc.
It is by these and other similar feats that Satan leads
seemingly pious people in misguidance. Sincere devotees among
heretics are in this way enticed to do acts wich are prohibited
(Haraam) or despised (Makrooh) in the religion. Satan is able
to make such misdeeds appealing to them by convincing them that
they are among the Karaamaat (supernatural or quasi-miraculous
feats) of the righteous. However they are, without a doubt,
Satanic deceptions because Allaah cannot be worshipped by any
religious injunction which is neither compulsory (Waajib) nor
recommended (Mustahabb). Whoever performs an act of worship
which is neither Waajib nor Mustahabb believing that it is so,
has been deceived by Satan. Even if it is decreed that such a
person will be forgiven due to his good intention and striving,
the act itself is still unacceptable to Allaah [An example may
be seen in the mistaken belief held by some that a man's head
must be covered while he is in formal prayer - Salaah - as is
the case among Jews or that a woman's hair to be covered while
reading the Qur'aan. However, the Prophet saws did not order
that it be done nor recommended it but merely followed the
customs of his people during that time.]. Such acts are not
among the things with which Allaah honors His pious servants who
are close to Him, as there is no honor in performing prohibited
(Haraam) or despised (Makrooh) acts [Such is the case of the
celebration of the Prophet's saws birthday - 'Eed Meelaad
an-Nabee - which probably began among ignorant Muslims trying to
outdo or at least compete with the Christians's celebrations of
Christmas. Meelaad celebrations are a form of innovation -
Bid'ah - in religion which has been forbidden by the Prophet
saws who said: "Whoever innnovates in this affair ouf ours -
i.e. Islaam - something which does not belong to it will be
rejected. - Reported by 'Aa'eshah and collected by Al-Bukaaree
and Muslim]. Divine honor lies in protecting one whom Allaah
loves from such acts and preventing him from doing them. For,
committing misdeeds debases one who does them and does not in
any way favor him, even if he is not punished for doing them.
Doing despised or Haraam acts MUST decrease the spiritual level
of both the one who does them as well as his followers who
praise such acts and glorify him. For, heaping praise on
prohibited and despised acts, and honoring the one who does them
is definitely a form of deviation from the path of Allaah. The
more and more a man innovates in the religion as a result of
independent judgement (Ijtihaad), the further he becomes from
Allaah, because innovation (Bid'ah) removes him from Allaah's
path; the divine path of "those who Allah has blessed from among
the prophets, the sincerely truthful, martyrs and righteous"
[An-Nisaa 4:69] unto the path of "those with whom Allaah is
angry and those who have gone astray" [Al-Faatihah 1:7]. Ibn
Taymeeyah mentioned the following [This begins a segment from
vol.35 of Ibn Taymeeyah's compendium, Majmoo' al-Fataawaa.]
historical incident concerning al-Hallaaj [Al-Husain ibn Mansoor
al-Hallaj (858-922 CE) studied under the eminent Sufi teachers
of his time (Tustaree, 'Amr Makee and Junaid) then broke with
them and went out into this world to preach asceticism and
mysticism in Khurasan, Ahwaz, Fars, India and Turkistan. On his
return to Baghdad from Makkah in 908, many were attracted by his
teachings, and disciples rapidly gathered around him. He taught
that the five pillars of Islaam may be replaced by other works.
He also taught about the existence of an uncreated Divine spirit
(Rooh Naatiqah) which becomes united with the created spirit of
the ascetic through desire of and submission to suffering. In
his teachings the Saint (Walee) became the living and personal
witness of God (H.A.R. Gibb and J.H. Kramers, Encyclopedia of
Islam, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1st ed., 1953, pp
127-80). Consequently he stated in his book: "If you do not
recognize God, at least recognise His sign, I am the creative
truth -Ana al-Haqq-, because through the truth, I am eternal
truth. My friends and teachers are Iblees (Satan) and Pharaoh.
Iblees was threatened with Hellfire, yet, he did not recant.
Pharaoh was drowned in the sea, yet he did not recant, for he
would not acknowledge anything between him and God (i.e. Hallaaj
felt that Iblees' refusal to prostrate to Aadam and Pharaoh's
statement "I am your Lord, most High" were correct!). And, I,
though, I am killed and crucified and though my hands and feet
are cut off; I do not recant." - Kitaab al-Tawaaseen, Massignon
Press, Paris, 1913, vi, 32. The leading scholars from all
orthodox schools of Islamic law as well as the leading Shi'ite
scholars and some of his former Sufi teachers declared him a
heretic and he was subsequently executed due to his refusal to
retract his claim to be the personification of God on earth.]
and a group of his followers, "Some of them requested some
sweets from al-Hallaaj, so he got up and went to a spot a short
distance away, then returned with a plateful of sweets. It was
later discovered that it had been stolen from a candy shop in
Yemen and carried by a devil to that area." Ibn Taymeeyah went
on to say, "Incidents similar to this have happened to others
who, like al-Hallaaj, also achieved the pinnacle of satanic
states, and we know of quite a few such people in our time as
well as other times. For instance, there is a person presently
residing in Damascus whom the devil used to carry from the
Saaliheeyah mountain to villages around Damascus. He would
appear out of the air and enter the windows of houses in which
people were gathered to witness his 'miraculous entrance.'" Ibn
Taymeeyah also quoted another mystic master who admitted that he
used to fornicate with women and sodomise young boys. The
former mystic master said, "A black dog ["Abu Dharr reported:
The Messanger of Allaah said: 'When any one of you stands for
prayer it should be towards something that shields him
equivalent (in height) to the back of a saddle, otherwise his
prayer will be broken by passing of a donkey, a woman or a black
dog.' I asked 'O Abu Dharr, what is the difference between a
black dog, a red dog and tan-colored dog?' He replied, 'O son
of my brother, I also asked Allaah's Messanger as you are asking
me, and he said: 'The black dog is a devil.'" (Saheeh Muslim and
all other in the six Saheeh books with the exception of Saheeh
al-Bukhaaree)] with two white spots between his eyes would come
to me and say, 'Verily such and such a person has made an oath
by you and he will come to you tomorrow to inform you about it.
I have already fulfilled his need for your sake.' [When
questioned during his trial, the infamous New York City mass
murderer of the seventies, "Son of Sam", claimed that a dog used
to come in backyard of his house and tell him to kill his
victims. It was assumed by the court and his psychiatrists that
he was mentally deranged and the dog a figment of his
imagination.] The person would then come to him the next day
and the Sufi master would reveal the details of his oath to him
and how it was fulfilled. The Sufi master went on to say, 'I
used to walk about the city and a black pole with a light on top
of it would lead the way.' " Ibn Taymeeyah said, "When the Sufi
master repented and began to pray, fast, and avoid the
forbidden, the black dog went away." He also narrated the
following about another mystic master who had the aid of devils
whom he would despatch to possess people: "When the family of
the possessed would come to him seeking a cure, he would send a
message to his demon companion and they would leave the
possessed persons, as a result, the Shaykh would be given many
dirhams for his services. Sometimes the Jinn would bring him
dirhams and food which they stole from people, so much so that
the Shaykh would request dates from his devils and they would
take them from beehives in which some poeple had hidden their
dates. When the beehive owners would look for their dates they
would find them gone."

About yet another mystic, Ibn Taymeeyah relates, "There was a
Shaykh knowledgeable in the religious sciences and Qur'anic
recitation to whom the devils came and eventually managed to
seduce. They told him that Salaah was no longer required of him
and that they would bring him whatever he wished. As soon as he
complied with their wishes, they began to bring him a variety of
sweets and fruit. This continued until he was advised to repent
by some scholars that he visited who were firmly following the
Sunnah. He subsequently repented and repaid the owners of the
sweets for what he ate while under the influence of the JINN."
He then went on to say, "Many of those who call on Shaykhs in
time of need saying, 'O master so and so, or Shaykh so and so,
fulfill my need' have seen an image of the Shaykh saying, 'I
will fulfill your need and put your heart at ease,' then it
fulfills their needs or repels their enemies. In such cases it
is a devil taking the Shaykh's form when they committed Shirk by
associating partners with Allaah and calling on others beside
Him." Ibn Taymeeyah then went on to enumerate similar instances
involving himself saying, "I know of many such incidences even
among a group of my companions who called on me in times when
they were struck by calamities. One was afraid of the Romans
and another of the Tatars. Both of them mentioned that they
called out to me, they saw me in the air and I repelled their
enemies for them. I informed them that I did not hear their
cries no did I repel their enemies. It was a devil taking my
appearance to seduce them when they associated partners with
Allaah the Almighty. Similar incidents have also happened to
the students of my contemporaries among the scholars, whereby
some of their students have sought refuge in them and have seen
them fulfill their needs. The scholars have also denied doing
so and indicated that it was in fact the work of devils."
[Majmoo' Al-Fataawaa, Vol. 35, pp. 112-116]

In another book, Ibn Taymeeyah said, "I know people whom the
plants greet and inform them of their beneficial ingredients,
however it is, in fact, Satan who has entered the plants and
spoken to them. I also know of others to whom stones and trees
speak saying, "Congratulations, Oh friend of Allaah" and when
the people recite Aayatul-Kursee it stops. I am acquainted with
yet others who have gone bird-hunting and the sparrows addressed
them saying, "Take me so that the poor may eat me." Such are
cases of the evil JINN possessing the birds in the same way that
others who, while in their house with the doors and vice versa
[Many of those in our times who have claimed what is known as
'out-of-body experiences' or 'astral-travel' have recorded in
vivid detail incidences simialr to those mentioned by Ibn
Taymeeyah. Others have met beings which claimed to be guides,
guardian spirits or their higher selves. However, the common
thought which links most of these experiences is the ultimate
expression of idolatry: that man is God, as was expressed by
Al-Hallaaj and countless others before and after him.] He may
even be taken through the closed city gates and back again
swiftly by the JINN. Lights may shine on him or someone looking
like his friend may call on him but, if he recites
Aayatul-Kursee continually, it will all dissappear." He also
said, "Some mystics have also said that the JINN showed them
something shiny like water and glass in which images or pictures
of whatever they sought information would appear and they in
turn wold inform people." Ibn Taymeeyah mentioned other
instances and then concluded by saying, "This is a so vast a
topic that if I were to mention all that I knew, it would fill a
very large volume." [Ibn Taymeeyah, Al-Furqaan Bayna Awliyaa
ar-Rahmaan wa Awliyaa ash-Shaytaan, pp. 87-92]

------------------------------------------------------------

This is only a part of the book which also contains chapters on
THE JINN, POSSESSION, EXORCISM AND WRITTEN EXORCISM as well as
Shaykh Ibn Baaz's Refutation of those who Deny Demonic
Possession.

Population of Muslims around the World

Population of Muslims around the World





Important NOTES:

Many current sources estimate the total world muslim population to be around 1.2 billion.
No one authentic data source of the population of Muslims exists, therefore I have tried only to gather data from sources that are well known, in the following order:
cia = CIA World Factbook Website http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/
library = Library of Congress Country Studies http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cshome.html
census = U.S. Census Bureau - International Data Base (IDB) http://www.census.gov/ftp/pub/ipc/www/idbnew.html
islamicweb = Islamic Web http://websolution.net/islamicweb/population.htm
brittanica = 1997 Britannica Book of the Year.
riseap = Muslim Almanac - Asia Pacific, by RISEAP.
gov't = Official Government Statistics Website
islamicweb = Islamic Web. http://websolution.net/islamicweb/population.htm
unknown = Books, missionary websites, etc.
The percentage was taken from the source and applied to the estimated population in 1998 to attain the number of Muslims.



Country Est. Pop. Muslim Est. Pop. in 1998 Percent Muslim Data Source
Indonesia 185259375 212941810 87 cia
India 137760516 984003683 14 cia
Bangladesh 112641663 127567002 88.3 cia
Pakistan 131081139 135135195 97 cia
Turkey 64437378 64566511 99.8 cia
Iran 68270332 68959931 99 cia
Egypt 62087004 66050004 94 cia
China 37107440 1236914658 3 cia
Ethiopia 29195175 58390351 50 cia
Russian Federation 6902468 146861022 4.7 islamicweb
Nigeria 55266121 110532242 50 cia
Morocco 28736009 29114497 98.7 cia
Algeria 30175985 30480793 99 cia
Sudan 23485386 33550552 70 cia
Uzbekistan 20930202 23784321 88 cia
Saudi Arabia 20785955 20785955 100 cia
Iraq 21070618 21722287 97 cia
Afghanistan 24544451 24792375 99 cia
Yemen 16224083 16387963 99 cia
Syrian Arab Rep. 15005954 16673282 90 cia
Malaysia 12141082 20932901 58 cia
Somalia 6841695 6841695 100 cia
Kazakhstan 7918000 16846808 47 cia
Tunisia 9192795 9380404 98 cia
Tanzania 10713069 30608769 35 cia
Mali 9097712 10108569 90 cia
Azerbaijan 7337108 7855576 93.4 cia
Ivory Coast (Cote D'Ivoire) 9267738 15446231 60 cia
Senegal 8945297 9723149 92 cia
Niger 7737478 9671848 80 cia
United States 5676546 270311756 2.1 brittanica
Burkina Faso 5633196 11266393 50 cia
Tajikistan 5117080 6020095 85 cia
Libya Arab Jamahiriy 5520005 5690727 97 cia
Jordan 4257579 4434978 96 cia
Ghana 5549162 18497206 30 cia
Kyrgyzstan 3391710 4522281 75 cia
Philippines 3886293 77725862 5 cia
Turkmenistan 3824889 4297629 89 cia
Zaire 4900051 49000511 10 cia
Chad 3679756 7359512 50 cia
Guinea 6355543 7477110 85 cia
Mozambique 3728293 18641469 20 cia
Uganda 3546751 22167195 16 cia
Thailand 2281419 60037366 3.8 cia
Mauritania 2511473 2511473 100 cia
Serbia and Montenegro 2129147 11,206,039 19 cia
Oman 2292683 2363591 97 cia
Sierra Leone 3048002 5080004 60 cia
Burma 1892213 47,305,319 4 cia
Kuwait 1626292 1913285 85 cia
Malawi 1968094 9840474 20 cia
Eritrea 1921218 3842436 50 www.NetAfrica.org/eritrea/
Cameroon 2404709 15029433 16 cia
Lebanon 1488428 3505794 70 cia
Bosnia And Herzegovina 1346290 3365727 40 cia
Sri Lanka 1514684 18933558 8 cia
Germany 1395350 82079454 1.7 cia
Kenya 1700224 28337071 6 cia
Bulgaria 1071255 8240426 13 cia
West Bank 1167689 1,556,919 75 cia
Albania 2331527 3330754 70 cia
Gaza Strip 1040469 1,054,173 98.7 cia
United Kingdom 1002492 58970119 1.7 cia
Zambia 1135288 9460736 12 cia
United Arab Emirates 827520 862000 96 cia
Israel 790155 5643966 14 cia
Italy 681392 56782748 1.2 brittanica
Argentina 725309 36265463 2 islamicweb
Benin 915119 6100799 15 cia
South Africa 856690 42834520 2 cia
Gambia 1162672 1291858 90 cia
Macedonia 602816 2009387 30 cia
Netherlands 629244 15731112 4 brittanica
Georgia 561938 5108527 11 cia
France 588049 58804944 1 cia
Madagascar 1012375 14462509 7 cia
Bahrain 520653 520653 100 cia
Nepal 710952 23698421 3 cia
Spain 391340 39133996 1 cia
Singapore 536118 3490356 15.36 census
Guinea Bissau 542839 1206311 45 cia
Liberia 554380 2771901 20 cia
Central African Republic 506365 3375771 15 cia
Qatar 662269 697126 95 cia
Comoros 469154 545528 86 cia
Belgium 282862 10174922 2.78 unknown
Canada 246680 27408898 0.9 www.statcan.ca
Maldives 290211 290211 100 cia
Romania 227890 22788969 1 unknown
Belarus 208181 10409050 2 cia
Togo 490582 4905827 10 cia
Australia 204744 18613087 1.1 www.abs.gov.au
Congo 53162 2658123 2 cia
Chile 207028 14787781 1.4 library
Mauritius 193930 1168256 16.6 cia
Brunei Darussalam 198633 315292 63 cia
Japan 149342 124451938 0.12 riseap
Mayotte 140525 141,944 99 cia
Greece 138607 10662138 1.3 cia
Cyprus 134817 748982 18 cia
Panama 109438 2735943 4 islamicweb
Cambodia 113395 11339562 1 islamicweb
Venezuela 101244 22803409 0.5 unknown
Denmark 96005 5333617 1.8 islamicweb
Sweden 88867 8886738 1 unknown
Zimbabwe 110441 11044147 1 cia
Mongolia 103141 2578530 4 cia
Bhutan 95415 1908307 5 library
Western Sahara 233730 233730 100 cia
Trinidad & Tobago 66996 1116595 6 cia
Armenia 68435 3421775 2 unknown
Rwanda 79561 7956172 1 cia
Suriname 83884 427980 19.6 cia
Switzerland 68754 7260357 1 unknown
Guyana 63716 707954 9 cia
Vanuatu 0 185204 0 riseap
Djibouti 414283 440727 94 cia
Taiwan 61343 21908135 0.28 riseap
Fiji 64208 802611 8 cia
Croatia 56059 4671584 1.2 cia
Burundi 55373 5537387 1 cia
Norway 42007 4286401 0.98 www.ssb.no/english
Vietnam 45741 76236259 0.06 riseap
Hong Kong 36888 6,706,965 0.55 census
Korea Dem. People's Rep. 34572 23048000 0.15 riseap
Hungary 30971 10323708 0.3 unknown
Laos 29324 5260842 0.99 census
Slovenia 19717 1971739 1 cia
Reunion 14101 705053 2 cia
Austria 10288 7914127 0.13 census
New Zealand 9983 3442500 0.29 riseap
New Caledonia 4999 166640 3 riseap
Gabon 4158 462000 0.9 cia
Poland 3831 38309226 0.01 unknown
Equatorial Guinea 3482 348150 1 uknown
Gibraltar 2300 28744 8 cia
Macau 2017 429,152 0.47 census
Guadeloupe 1844 368796 0.5 unknown
Aruba (Neth.) 1667 66687 2.5 cia
Finland 1014 5067620 0.02 census
Barbados 817 255200 0.32 census
Anguilla 16 10500 0.2 Anguilla Islamic Society: http://axaislam.homestead.com

Muslims beyond the U.S.

Muslims In The United States

*U.S. Muslim Population Table

Ethnic Grouping Population 1000 (1990) Percent of Total Muslim Population Definition of Terms
African-
American 2,100 42.0 African-Americans: Those persons of African descent native to the United States of America.

South Asians 1,220 24.4 South-Asians: Those of Indian/Pakistani, Bangladeshi, Sri Lankan, or Afghan descent now residing in the United States as citizens or permanent residents.

Arabs 620 12.4 Arabs: People from Arabic-speaking countries of the Middle East and North Africa who are permanent residents or citizens of the United States.

Africans 260 5.2 Africans: People from the African continent who are citizens or permanent residents of the United States

Iranians 180 3.6 Iranians: People of Persian descent, usually from Iran, who are citizens or permanent residents.

Turks 120 2.4 Turkish: People of Turkish descent who are citizens ro permanent residents.

South East Asians 100 2.0 South East Asians: People of Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Indochina, or the Phillippines.

American Whites 80 1.6 American Whites: Those of West European descent, who are native to the United States.

East Europeans 40 0.8 East Europeans: People from various regions of Eastern Europe.

Other 280 5.6 Other: All other groups.

Totals 5,000 100

Geographical Distribution:
The table below represents a breakdown by states of the largest Muslim communities in the United States. It shows that there are an estimated 3.3. million Muslims in these states. The figure represents 62 percent of the estimated 5 million Muslims living in the United States.


Muslim State Population Table
State Muslim Population
(1,000) Percentage Total Muslim Population Percent of Total State Population
California 1,000 20.0 3.4
New York 800 16.0 4.7
Illinois 420 8.4 3.6
New Jersey 200 4.0 2.5
Indiana 180 3.6 3.2
Michigan 170 3.4 1.8
Virginia 150 3.0 2.4
Texas 140 2.8 0.7
Ohio 130 2.6 1.2
Maryland 70 1.4 1.4

* Estimates under column 2 have been rounded to the nearest even number.

The list below shows the number of facilities used by Muslims for religious activities and community affairs: Mosques/Islamic Centers 843
Islamic Schools 165
Associations 426
Publications 89
There are 165 Islamic Schools in the United States, of which 92 are full time. Figures here for Masjids/Islamic Centers are based on our directory listings.


Note: The exact number of businesses owned and operated by Muslims is unavailable, but they are estimated in the thousands. These preliminary finding represent data collected during 1986-1992.

*AMC Publication

Muslim Contributions to Science, Philosophy, and the Arts

Muslim Contributions to Science, Philosophy, and the Arts

by Huma Ahmad

In the modern world Islam is seen as many things, but rarely
is it viewed as a source of inspiration and enlightenment.
Though it is a force of enlightenment and it is not only verses of
the Quran that testify to that fact, but also the great body of
scholarship produced during the Middle Ages. While Europe was in the
midst of darkness, it was the Muslims, spurred on by the light of
their new Deen who picked up the torch of scholarship and
science. It was the Muslims who preserved the knowledge of
antiquity, elaborated upon it, and finally, passed it on to Europe.

Although every peoples earn what they do and pass on, it is
important for us to learn about and appreciate the
contributions of the Islamic civilization by the early Muslims.
Colonialism, the institution of the Western educational model, along
with Eurocentrism often portrays Islam as backwards, incompatible
with science and technology and anti-educational. Muslim school
children never learn of their glorious past and often the only thing
passed on to them is the inferiority complex of the generation before
them. From the past we can learn from our mistakes and use the
analysis of those great examples before us as role models to enrich
us in the future.

In the seventh century A.D., the prophet Muhammad (SAW) was
sent to the people of Arabia. Within a decade of his death
the Muslims had conquered all of the Arabian peninsula. Within a
century, Islam had spread from Al-Andalus in Spain to the borders of
China. Islam unified science, theology, and philosophy. Muslims were
commanded to study, seek knowledge, and learn and benefit from
others' experiences by Allah (SWT) in the holy Quran and by the
prophet Muhammad (SAW) in the Sunnah. It was this that inspired the
Muslims to great heights in sciences, medicine, mathematics,
astronomy, chemistry, philosophy, art and architecture.

Muslim scholars began obtaining Greek treatises and started
their study and translation into Arabic a few centuries after
the Hijrah (622 A.D.) They critically analyzed, collated , corrected
and supplemented substantially the Greek science and philosophy.
After this period began what is known as the Golden Age
of Islam, which lasted for over two centuries. It is here we find
many of the great scientists of Islam who literally left behind
hundreds and thousands of books on the various branches of science.

Abu Ali al-Hussain Ibn Abdallah Ibn Sina, universally known
as Avicinna (980-1037), alone wrote 246 books, including
Kitab-al Shifa (The Book of Healing) consisting of 20 volumes and Al-
Qanun fit Tibb (The Canons of Medicine) . The Qanun was the chief
guide for medical science in the West from the twelfth to the
seventeenth century. Dr. William Osler, who wrote The Evolution of
Modern Science, remarks "The Qanun has remained a medical Bible for
a longer period than any other work". Containing over
a million words, it surveyed the entire medical knowledge available
from ancient and Muslim sources, and including his own original
contributions.

Ibn Sina's original contributions included such advances
such as recognition of the contagious nature of phtisis and
tuberculosis; distribution of diseases by water and soil and the
interaction between psychology and health. Also, the book described
over 760 drugs and became the most authentic of its era. Ibn Sina
was also the first to describe meningitis and made rich contributions
to anatomy, gynaecology and child health.

This interest in medicine went back to the time of
the Prophet (SAW), who once said that there
existed a cure for every disease. With this spirit there were
hospitals and clinics built all over the Muslim world, the earliest
built in 707 by Caliph Walid ibn Abd a-Malik in Damascus.
Muslims made many advances such as the idea of circulation of
blood and quarantine and the foundation of the first apothecary shops
and the earliest school of pharmacy.

Hunayn ibn Ishaq, a philosopher and physician made advances
in Medicine, Physics, Mathematics, Astronomy Veterinary
Science, and Ophthalmology. He was the head of the famous school of
translators founded by Caliph Mamun at Baghdad and wrote the first
systematic text book on opthamology.

Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi (865-925 AD) , known
as Rhazes, was one of the most prolific Muslim doctors and
probably second only to Ibn Sina in his accomplishments. He was born
at Ray, Iran and became a student of Hunayn ibn Ishaq and later a
student of Ali ibn Rabban. He wrote over 200 books, including Kitab
al-Mansuri, ten volumes on Greek medicine, and al-Hawi, an
encyclopedia of medicine in 20 volumes. In al-Hawi, he
included each medical subject's information available from Greek and
Arab sources and then added his own remarks based on his experience
and views. He classified substances as vegetable, animal or mineral
while other alchemists divided them into "bodies", "souls" and
"spirits".

Al-Razi was first placed in charge of the first Royal
Hospital at Ray, from where he soon moved to a similar
position in Baghdad where he remained the head of its famous
Muqtadari Hospital for a long time. He found a treatment for kidney
and bladder stones, and explained the nature of various infectious
diseases. He also conducted research on smallpox and
measles and was the first to introduce the use of alcohol for medical
purposes. A unique feature to his medical system was
that he greatly favored cure through correct and regulated food
intake. This was combined with his emphasis on the influence of
psychological factors on health. He also tried proposed remedies
first on animals in order to evaluate their effects and side
effects. He was also an expert surgeon and the first to use opium
for anesthesia.

Another great physician who soon followed was al-Razi was
Abul Qasim al-Zahrawi (963-1013 AD) who is known as Albucasis
to the West. A famous surgeon in his time, at the court of Caliph
al- Hakam II , students and patients flocked to him from the Muslim
world and Europe. He wrote the medical encyclopedia al-Tasrif li man
ajaz an-il-talif, which contained 30 sections of surgical knowledge
and illustrations of 200 surgical instruments, most of which he
designed himself. The Encyclopedia was not only a standard for
physicians, but even five centuries later it was being used as the
standard textbook on surgery in universities in Europe.
He also performed many delicate operations such as Cesareans and was
also the first to use silk thread for stitching wounds.

Al-Idrisi was born in Cordova, Spain in 1099. His major
contribution was in medicinal plants which he described in
many books, such as Kitab al-Jami-li-Sifat Ashtat al-Nabatat. He
collected plans and data not reported earlier and added this to the
subject of botany. From him a large number of new drugs from plants
with their evaluations became available to medical practitioners.
Al-Idrisi also made original contributions to topography, as related
to economics, physical factors and cultural aspects. He wrote
geographical encyclopedias, the largest called Rawd-Unnas wa Nuzhalat
Nafs (Pleasure of Men and Delight of Souls). Al-Idrisi
also wrote on the subjects of fauna, zoology and threapeutical
aspects. His work was soon translated into Latin and his books on
geography especially remained popular in the east and west for
several centuries.

Working in the field of botany as well was abu Muhammad Ibn
al-Baitar, also from Spain. He was one of the greatest
scientists of Muslim Spain and one of the greatest botanists and
pharmacists of the Middle Ages. He went on many traveling
expeditions to collect plants as far as Africa and Asia Minor. He
wrote Kitab al-Jami al-Adiwaya al-Mufrada, one of the greatest
botanical compilations dealing with medicinal plants in Arabic The
encyclopedia was made of over 1,400 items, many of which were not
known before. The book referred to the works of 150 authors, mostly
Arabic and quoted about 20 early Greek scientists. It was translated
into Latin and published as late as 1758.

Ibn al-Baitars works were characterized by observation,
analysis and classification and exerted a profound influence
on Eastern as well as Western botany and medicine. Even though many
of his works were translated and published late in the western
languages, many earlier scientists had studied various parts of the
book and made several references to it.

At the same time as these advances in medicine were being
made, the Muslims produced some of the most outstanding
Mathematicians. Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi, born in 780 A.D.,
was the founder of modern Algebra. He developed sine, cosine and
trigonometrical tables, which were later translated to the West. His
book on algebra Hisab al-Jabr waal-Muqabalah (The Calculation of
Integration and Equation) was used until the 16th century as the
principal textbook of European universities. In it he
writes that given an equation, collecting the unknowns in one side of
the equation is called al-Jabr and collecting the knowns in the other
side of the equation is called al- Mukabalah. He also described six
basic types of equations: nx=m , x^2=nx , x^2=m , m+x^2 =nx, m+nx
+x^2 and x^2=m+nx. He also solved the particular equation
x^2+21=10x using geometrical arguments.

Al-Khawarizmi also helped introduce Arabic numerals, the
decimal position system, and the concept of zero. Algebra
and Algorithm are in fact corruption's of his work and name.
Interestingly, this first every book on algebra included many
examples from the Islamic inheritance laws and how they could be
solved using algebra. Under al-Mamun the caliph of the time, he with
some others were the first to map the globe.

In the field of Algebra the Muslims continued with Thabit Ibn
Qurra's more general equations solved by geometrical
arguments. In 901, Abu Kamil, called "the Egyptian calculator", did
some work on algebra in which he established rules for manipulating
algebraic expressions. He also proved various laws such as
ax*bx-abx^2, a(bx)=(ab)x and (10-x)(10-x)=100+x^2-20x (Mirza, p124).
Around 1000, Abu Bakr Al-Karaji, in his book The Marvelous discussed
higher order equations such as fourth and fifth order equations,
combing geometry and arithmetic. Al-Samawal
established the power law x^nx^n=x^(m+n) in 1180 in his work The
Shining which is just one of his 85 books. He also worked on
performing multiplication of algebraic expressions involving terms
with different powers and division of polynomials. Abu
Yunus proved the famous identity cos(a)cos(b)={cos(a+b)+cos(a-b)}/2
and used spherical trigonometry to set formulas to computer prayer
times. Al-Biruni also used spherical trigonometry to find the
direction of Mecca or any other city on the globe.

Another outstanding mathematician was Ghiyath al-Din al
Kashani of the late fourteenth century. He worked on the
theory of numbers and techniques of computations. In 1424, he
computed a value of 2pi to sixteen decimal digits of accuracy using
an approximation of the circle by 805306368 side polygon. One of his
most important works was Miftah elHussab or The Calculators' Key, in
it he described an algorithm for finding the fifth root of any
number. The book was used in Persian schools until the seventeenth
century. Later in his life he moved to Samarkand at the request of
the then ruler to help direct a new scientific school and observatory
and conduct research with other scholars of the time. Kashani also
wrote on how to approximate sin(1) by solving a cubic equation
accurately.

Umar Khayyam known to the west as only a poet actually also
was an excellent mathematician. He criticized Euclid's
theorems, evolved a methodology for the solution of third degree
equations, and did research in the field of binomials and their
coefficients.

Abu Wafa Muhammad al-Buzanji was born in Buzjan, Nishapur in
940 A. D. He became a great mathematician and astronomer at
Baghdad and died in 997 A.D. Al-Buzanji's main contribution lies in
several branches of mathematics, in geometry and trigonometry
especially. In geometry he contributed to a solution of geometrical
problems with opening of the compass, construction of a square
equivalent to other squares, regular polyhedra, construction of
regular hectagon taking for its side of the equilateral triangle
inscribed in the same circle, constructions of parabola by points and
geometrical solution of the equations x4=a and x4+ax3=b.

Al-Buzanji's contribution to the development of trigonometry
was also extensive. He was the first to show the generality
of the sine theorem relative to spherical triangles. He developed a
new method of constructing sine tables, the value of sin 30` being
correct to the eight decimal place. He also developed relations for
sine(a+b) and the formula: 2 sin2 (a/2) = 1 -cos a and sin a = 2 sin
(a/2) cos (a/2). In addition he studied tangent and
calculated tables for them. He introduced the secant and cosecant
for the first time. He wrote a large number of books on mathematics
and other subjects, most of which have been lost or exist in modified
forms. He also wrote rich commentaries on Euclid, Diophanatos and
al-Khwarizmi. A sizable part of today's trigonometry can be traced
back to him.

Abu Abdullah al-Battani (862-929 A.D.) was a son of a
scientist and also a famous astronomer, mathematician and
astrologer. He is often considered one of the greatest astronomists
of Islam. His career of 42 years included a number of important
discoveries, including the accurate determination of the solar year
as 365 days, 5 hours, 46 minutes, and 24 seconds, which is very close
to modern estimates. He also determined with accuracy
the obliquity of the ecliptic, the length of the seasons and the true
and mean orbit of the sun. He proved that in contrast to Ptolemy,
the variation of the apparent angular diameter of the sun and the
possibility of annular eclipses. His observations of lunar and solar
eclipses were used by Dunthorne in 1749 to determine the secular
acceleration of motion of the moon.

In mathematics, al-Battani was the first to replace the use
of Greekchords by sines and the first to develop the concept
of cotangent and furnished their table in degrees. He wrote a number
of books on astronomy and trigonometry. His most famous book was his
astronomical treatise with tables which was translated into Latin in
the 12th century, called De Sceinta Stellerum De numeris Stellerum et
Motibus. This was extremely influential in Europe until the
Renaissance, with translations available in several languages.
His original discoveries in both astronomy and
trigonometry were of great consequence in the development of those
sciences.

In the related field of Physics, Abu al-Fath Abd al-Rahman
al-Khazini studied mechanics and hydrostats and wrote books
on physics and astronomy. Al-Biruni, a geographer, chronologist,
mathematician, astronomer, was also a physicist. His Elements of
Astrology remained a textbook for centuries and he also wrote on
specific gravity, and developed formulas to determine absolute and
specific weights of all objects.

Abu al-Hassan al Haitham (965-1039 AD) was one of the most
eminent physicists, whose contribution to optics and the
scientific method were great. Originally from Basra, he went to
Egypt where he was asked to find ways of controlling the flood of the
Nile. Being unsuccessful in this, he feigned madness until the death
of Caliph al-Hakim. He also traveled to Spain and during this time
also had time for his scientific pursuits. He wrote treatises such
as Kital al-Manzir on light, worked with mirrors and lenses,
reflection, refraction, and magnifying and burning glasses.
He discussed the propagation of light and colors, optic
illusions and opposed the view of Euclid and Ptolemy that the eye
sent out visual rays. From studying motion, he discovered the
principle of inertia.

He contradicted Ptolemy's and Euclid's theory of vision that
objects are seen by rays of light emanating from the eyes.
According to Haitham, the rays originated in the object of vision
and not in the eye. Through this kind of extensive research on
optics, he has been considered the father of modern Optics. Roger
Bacon and all medieval Western writers on optics based their work
largely on his Opticae Thesaurus and it even influenced Leonardo da
Vinci, Johann Kepler and Newton.. Haitham also studied
the phenomena of sunrise and sunset and explained rainbows through
the principle of reflection. He was known for the
earliest use of the camera obscura as well.

Al-Kindi (d. 873 AD) considered the first philosopher of the
Arabs, also contributed to Physics , Optics, reflection of
light, specific weights, tides and metallurgy.

Muslims also made discoveries in Chemistry by discovering
many new substances such as potash, nitrate of silver,
corrosive sublimate and nitrate and sulfuric acid as well as
improving methods for evaporation, filtration, sublimation,
calcination, melting, distillation, and crystallization.
Jabir, otherwise known as the father of Arab alchemy
contributed in the fields of Pharmacology and Toxicology.

Al-Asma'i (740-882 AD) was a philologist who contributed to
Zoology, Botany and Animal Husbandry. Other
Muslim botanists described plants in detail, medicinal herbs,
physiology of plants and wrote books on horses, camels, sheep, birds,
the history of bees and locusts, the effect of climate on the
behavior of animals and men. Also working on the subject
of Botany, Suri al- Dimashqi researched plants around Damascus and
Lebanon at different stages of growth.

In the field of geography, Ibn Majid invented the compass.
The Muslims traversed the Indian, Atlantic and
Pacific Ocean as well as sailing around the African continent, in
their trading with India, Iran and Greece. They wrote such books as
Akhbar al-Hind (Reports on India), Akhbar al-Sin (Reports on China)
and Ajib al-Hind (Curiosities of India). Sulaiman
Al-Makri wrote of his travels in Al-budat and other books. Abu
al-Hasan al-Masudi, a historian and scientist, traveled the world
journeying from Persia, Central Asia, India, the Near East,
Madagascar and the China Sea. He wrote his encyclopedic volume on
his travels which included history, cosmology and geography.

Al-Biruni was the first known writer to identify certain
geological facts, such as the formation of sedimentary rocks
and the great geological changes that happened in the past. He was
also the founder of geodesy and wrote and improved upon the methods
of measuring longitudes, latitudes, heights of mountains and the
diameter of the earth. He also wrote on biological evolution.

Of the many scientists in the field of astronomy, Al-Sufi
helped build a famous observatory under the Buwayh sultan
Sharaf-al-Dawlah. He prepared charts of the heavens with magnitudes
and was the first to mark the nebula of Andromeda in his atlas.
Al-Zarqali from al-Andalus invented the astrolabe and
measured the rate of motion. He also constructed
astronomical instruments and built a water clock.

Jabir ibn Aflah was a Spanish Arab who criticized Ptolemy's
heliocentric theory of planetary motion. He designed the
first portable celestial sphere to explain and measure the movements
of celestial objects and led the way for spherical trigonometry.
Al-Bitruji developed a new theory of stellar movements.
Names of many constellations, words like zenith and
nadir and even names of craters of the moon all go back to the works
of Muslim scholars of this time.

We can see that these Islamic sciences had a great impact
upon both the Western world and also the two major
civilizations east of the Islamic world, India and China. Without
the Islamic scientists and their work, the development of science in
these civilizations would have been different. Between
the eleventh and thirteenth centuries the major works of Islamic
scientists were translated into Latin in Spain, Sicily and Italy.
Muslim scientists like Ibn Sina and al-Razi became household names in
the West. Islamic medicine led the way for European medicine.

In the field of mathematics the works of al-Khwarazmi and
others were taught in the Western universities for centuries.
Astronomical tables written in the West were based
upon the work of Muslims before them. Treatises on algebra that were
written were mostly based on the work of Khayyam. Works in chemistry
written in Latin used an extensive Arabic vocabulary because there
was no Latin vocabulary in this field.

Many of these scientists were also great philosophers, such
as Ibn Sina and al-Razi. Ibn Sina initially began studying
logic, from there he studied physics and metaphysics and was the
first to develop a complete philosophical system in Arabic.
Ibn Sina's philosophical encyclopedia Kitab al- Shifa was a
monumental work, embodying a vast field of knowledge from philosophy
to science. He classified the entire field as follows: theoretical
knowledge; physics, mathematics, and metaphysics; ethics, economics
and politics. His philosophy synthesized Aristotelian tradition,
Neoplatonic influences and Muslim theology. Besides al-Shifa his
well-known treatises in philosophy are al-Najat and Isharat.

Al-Razi's contribution as a philosopher was also well known.
The basic elements in his philosophical system were the
Creator, the spirit, matter, space and time. He discussed their
characteristics in detail and his concepts of space and time as
constituting a continuum. His philosophical views were, however,
criticized by a number of other Muslim scholars of the era.

During the time of Harun al-Rashid (786-809) the Muslims
built a library which contained both originals and
translations of almost any then known scientific work in Sanskrit,
Persian and Greek. His son, Caliph al-Mamun continued the tradition
of philosophy and science and established in Baghdad his Bayt
al-Hikmah (House of Wisdom), a library and academy.
Here the objective was to collect all scientific works, translate
them into Arabic and copy and bind them into books to preserve them.
No doubt much of the knowledge of the Greeks and others was preserved
in this way.

The greatest figure in Islamic philosophy is held to be Imam
al-Ghazali, who was a jurist, theologian, philosopher and
mystic. Born in 1058 in Khorasan, he came to have a high standard of
scholarship in religion and philosophy and gained an appointment as a
professor at the Nizamiyah University, which was one of the most
reputed institutions of learning at the time. Muslim philosophers of
his time had been following and developing many of the viewpoints of
Greek philosophy, including Neoplatonic philosophy, which led to
conflict with some Islamic teachings. Also at this time
the Sufi's began introducing heretical beliefs like avoiding
observances of obligatory prayers and other duties of Islam. Ghazali
sought to show the faults in both these trends.

In philosophy, Ghazali upheld the approach of mathematics and
exact sciences as essentially correct, but he adopted the
techniques of Aristotelian logic and the Neoplatonic procedqres and
used these as tools to show the flaws in the then prevalent
Aristotelianism and excessive rationalism.. In contrast to some of
the Muslim philosophers like Farabi, he portrayed the inability of
reason to comprehend the absolute and the infinite. Reason could not
transcend the finite and was limited to the observation of the
relative, he argued. Also, several Muslim philosophers had the
opinion that the universe was finite in space but infinite in time.
Ghazali argued that infinite time was related to infinite space. He
was able to create a balance between religion and reason.

Ghazali wrote many books including Tuhafut al-Falasifa (The
Incoherence of the Philosophers) and Ihya al-Ulum al-Islamia
(The Revival of the Islamic Sciences). Ghazali's influence was deep.
His theological doctrines penetrated Europe and influenced Jewish and
Christian Scholasticism and Thomas Aquinas.

Other Muslims also wrote extensively on Creation, God,
Aristotelian thought, logic and developed systems of
jurisprudence and law. During this period especially, Islamic
philosophy was active in Spain and Morocco. These included
Ibn Bajjah who wrote Tadbir al-mutawahhid (Regimen of the Solitary)
where he discussed the perfect society built upon the inner
perfection of individuals within the society. Ibn Tufayl, a
physician and philosopher, followed with Hayy al Yaqzan (Living Son
of the Awake).

Another great philosopher was Ibn Rushd, the Qadi of Cordova,
a jurist, and interpreter of the Shair'ah. Ibn Rushd was a
rationalist and wrote about religion and philosophy. In his book
Kitab Fasl al- Makal, he wrote about the creation of the world,
Divine knowledge of particular things, and the future of the human
soul. He also wrote commentaries on Aristotle, to such an
extent that in the West he was known as "The Commentator" during the
Western Middle Ages and the Renaissance. He wrote an
answer to Al-Ghazali's works and wrote the Tahafut al tahafut
(Incoherence of the Incoherence). Ibn Rushd's influence on Medieval
and Renaissance European history is found to be greater than that of
his influence on the Islamic world.

Ibn Khaldun's (1332-1395) main contribution lies in
philosophy of history and sociology. He wanted to write a
world history aimed at analyzing historical events. The first volume
was known as the Muqaddimah . This monumental work identified
psychological, economic, environmental and social facts that
contributed to the advancement of human civilizations and the
currents of history as opposed to just the political context of
earlier writers.

In this context, he analyzed the dynamics of group
relationships and showed how group feelings, al-'Asabiyya,
give rise to the ascent of a new civilization and political power and
how, later on , its diffusion into a more general civilization
invited the beginning of a still new 'Asabiyya in its pure form. He
identified an almost rhythmic repetition of rise and fall in human
civilization and analyzed factors contributing to it. His
contribution to history is marked by the fact that, unlike most
earlier writers who interpreted history through the political
context, he emphasized environmental, sociological, psychological and
economic factors governing the apparent events. This revolutionized
the science of history and also laid the foundation of Umraniyat
(Sociology).

Lastly we come to the realm of the arts. The well known
Hadith "Allah is beautiful and He loves beauty" encouraged
Muslims to beautify the word of Allah through calligraphy and other
expressions. Islamic calligraphy began with the kufi styles, then
followed naskhi, thuluth, muhaqqiq, rayhani, and nasta'liq.
Calligraphy began as a direct response of the soul of Muslims
to the descent of the Quranic revelation.
Calligriphical art moved from beautifying the Quran and texts to
objects, houses and Mosques and eventually to Architecture.

Writes T.B. Irving on Islamic architecture, " ..few
civilizations have approached Islam's beauties in
architecture: her soaring minarets and spires, her fabled domes, her
cool corridors, all reflect the yearning of Muslims, who refusing to
find expression in natural depiction concentrate their energies on
buildings and their embellishment."

These embellishments included the calligraphic mosaics of
mosques, tombs and places through out Persia , India, Turkey,
Egypt, Morocco along with marble carving, plaster work, delicate
inlay and tile work. Muslims also evolved their own style of art,
while producing beautiful ceramic tiles, porcelain, pottery, plates,
bowls, tapestries and rugs, and lamps.

The defining elements of Islamic Architecture are many. The
use of the frame created organization and design..
Calligraphy was found in the decoration of almost every Islamic
building as well as many objects. Geometry become a major art form
by using the circle as a basis and generating patterns from
repetition, symmetry and changing scale to create unusual effects.
Reflected light was developed and multiplied with
the Muqarnas cells beneath domes, and they reflected and refracted
light.

Ceramic tiles and mirrors were added to use light and
increase them. Foliation including the classical vine and
scroll motifs gave rise to the abstract art of the arabesque.
Lastly, water was an essential element, whether flowing
through palaces in India or in fountains found in the inner
courtyards of Spain. Islamic architecture influenced the widespread
use of the niche form for Mihrab, tombstone, door, window or
decorative feature, lamps, domes, mosaics, geometric shapes,
patterns, intertwining leaf motifs and designs, fountains, gardens,
and courtyards.

Islamic art took from the civilizations surrounding it and
also impacted them. The Chinese were influenced in their
vases and carpets. Medieval Europe were influenced in their arts and
showed it from their adoption of arches to their illuminations of
Latin and Hebrew manuscripts. Of course the epitome of
Islamic art can be seen in the greatest Islamic masterpieces such as
the grand mosques of Cordova in Spain, the Taj Mahal in India, and
the Blue mosque in Turkey. The works of these Muslim artists have
become prototypes and models on which other artists and craftsmen
patterned their own works, or from which they derived the inspiration
for related work.

Thus the contributions of early Islam was so rich, so
voluminous and so varied that it defies this brief
descriptive survey. These Muslims drew from their pre-Islamic
traditions, plus those of the civilizations they came into contact
with and they absorbed what went with their beliefs and rejected what
did not. Over the centuries they continued to develop and partake in
the pursuit of knowledge with no hesitation. The destruction of
Baghdad and the Mongol invasions did not even hinder them from
learning and elaborating on the arts and sciences, despite the great
destruction of their books and knowledge.

However, what is most important is not the discoveries
themselves of the early Muslims but the methodology and kind
of thought behind what produced them. Inspired by the truth of
Islam, by strong faith and by Quranic enjoinders to ponder, think and
discover the world did they lead the world in doing so. Only with
this verve to relate the outward world of science, art and philosophy
to inner spirituality and religion can we again reach the heights of
the Golden Age of Islam.

[ A timetable of contributions:]

- Chuzini, Abu al-Fath al-; physicist.
- Ibn Hisham; biographer, historian.
- Ibn Labban, Kushyar.
- Ibn Turk, `Abd al-Hamid; mathematician.
- Ibn al-Muqtafi, Abu al-Fadl Ja`far; astronomer.
- 767 Ibn Ishaq; biographer, historian.
721- 815 Jabir ibn Hayyan, Abu Musa (Geber); alchemist.
780- 850 Khwarizmi, Muhammad ibn Musa al-; astronomer,
mathematician.
82?- 861 Farghani, Abu al-`Abbas al- (Afragamus); astronomer,
geographer.
- 870 Kindi, Abu Yusuf Ya`qub ibn Ishaq al-Sabah al-;
philosopher.
828- 889 Ibn Qutaybah; historian, philologist, theologian.
826- 901 Ibn Qurra, Thabit; mathematician.
865- 923 Razi, al- (Rhazes); alchemist, philosopher, physician.
839- 923 Tabari, al-; historian, theologian.
858- 929 Battani, al- (Albatenius); astronomer, mathematician.
870- 950 Farabi, al- (Alfarabicus); philosopher, poet.
940- 998 Abu al-Wafa'; astronomer, mathematician.
-1008 Ibn Yunus; astronomer, mathematician.
936-1013 Abu al-Qasim (Albucasis); physician.
-1029 Karkhi, al-; mathematician.
930-1030 Ibn Miskawayh; historian, philosopher.
980-1037 Ibn Sina, Abu `Ali al-Husayn (Avicenna); philosopher,
physician.
965-1039 Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen); mathematician, physicist.
973-1048 Biruni, al-; historian, mathematician, physicist.
1058-1111 Ghazali, Abu Hamid al- (Algazel); philosopher.
1048-1131 Khayyam, `Umar (Omar Khayyam); astronomer, mathematician,
poet.
1095-1138 Ibn Bajjah (Avempace); philosopher.
1075-1144 Zamakhshari, al-; philologist, theologian.
1090-1162 Ibn Zuhr, Abu Marwun `Abd al-Malik (Avenzoar, Abumeron);
physician.
1100-1185 Ibn Tufayl; philosopher, physician.
1126-1198 Ibn Rushd, Abu al-Walid (Averroes); philosopher,
physician.
1135-1204 Ibn Maymun (Maimonides); Jewish philosopher, physician.
1201-1274 Tusi, Nasir al-Din al-; astronomer, mathematician,
philosopher.
-1288 Ibn al-Nafis; physician.
-137? Ibn al-Shatir; astronomer.
1332-1406 Ibn Khaldun, Abu Zayd `Abd al-Rahman; historian,
sociologist.
-1436 Kashi, al-; mathematician.
1445-1505 Suyuti, al-; historian, philologist, theologian.




SOURCES

Brend, Barbara. Islamic Art. Cambridge: Harvard University Press,
1991.

Fakhry, Majid. A History of Islamic Philosophy. New York: Columbia
University Press, 1970.

Haye, Kh. A. Stories of Great Muslims. Brentwood: American Trust
Publications, 1991.

Hitti, K. Phillip. History of the Arabs. New York: St. Martins
Press, 1970.

Irving, T.B. The Tide of Islam. Cedar Rapids: Igrams Press, 1982.

Michell, George. Architecture of the Islamic World. London: Thames
and Hudson, 1995.

Mirza, Dr. Muhammad R. and Sidiiqi, Muhammad Iqbal. Muslim
Contribution to Science. Chicago: Kazi Publications, 1986.

Nasr, Seyyed Hossein. A Young Muslim's Guide to the Modern World.
Chicago: Kazi Publications,1994.

Qadir, C.A. Philosophy and Science in the Muslim World. London:
Croom Helm, 1988.

Science : The Islamic Legacy: Worlds fair issue, 1987.

*Various Internet sources

Apr. 1997

Something to think about...

Assalamu Alaikum.

Something to think about...

-Funny how a $20 bill looks so big when you take it to Mosque, but so
small when you take it to the market.

-Funny how long it takes to do Zikr for an hour, but how quickly a team plays 60
minutes of basketball.

-Funny how long a couple of hours spent at Mosque are, but how short
they are when watching a movie.

-Funny how we can't think of anything to say when we pray, but don't
have difficulty thinking of things to talk about to a friend.

-Funny how we get thrilled when a baseball game goes into extra
innings, but we complain when a "Tarahvi" during Ramadhan is longer
than the regular time.

-Funny how hard it is to read a Para in the Quran, but how easy it is
to read 100 pages of a best selling novel.

-Funny how people want to get a front seat at any game or concert, but
scramble to get a back row at mosque so that scramble out.

-Funny how we need 2 or 3 weeks advance notice to fit a Mosque event
into our schedule, but can adjust our schedule for other events at the
last moment.

-Funny how hard it is for people learn a simple Preaching well enough
to tell others, but how simple it is for the same people to understand
and repeat gossip.

-Funny how we believe what the newspaper says, but question what the
Quran says.

-Funny how everyone wants to go to heaven provided they do not have to
believe, or to think, or to say, or do anything.

-Funny how you can send a thousand 'jokes' through e-mail and they spread like
wildfire, but when you start sending messages regarding the Lord, people think
twice about sharing.

FUNNY, ISN'T IT?

Are you laughing?

Are you thinking?

Spread the Word and give thanks to Allah for He is Good & Mercifull!

Lost of the Desert Sand

From: Youssuf El-Kalay youssuf@qpt.com ======================================================================= Lost in the desert sand There I was standing in the middle of a desolate tract, in one of the most arid regions of the world. The sun beat down on my face and my dry parched throat yearned for water. Salvation was nowhere to be found, like a ferret in a dense forest. All was lost. I was surrounded by a pack of hyenas, sniggering at me because I was an anomaly in their world. I didn't belong; I didn't want to belong. This is how I felt when I was living in Egypt. It was a tumultuous period of my life and looking back I feel fortunate enough to have survived the turbulent change in life.

Life was quite different in Egypt, from my days in the United States. We moved during the summer, a time when heat and dust made an unpleasant combination. Although I had visited Egypt before, it was different this time. Certainly going on an excursion was far different than actually living in the country. My parents told me it was going to be the beginning of a new life, a chance to make new friends and gain new experiences. I was so eager to return to my roots. I anticipated lively adventures and an exciting life much like that of Indiana Jones. Little did I know that everyday would be quite the opposite. Society in Egypt was far from anything you would expect. It was common to see horse driven carts on the roads alongside cars that were hundreds of times more powerful than they were. People still bought food and other goods from open-air markets even though supermarkets were plentiful. Even though you'd see men and women sweeping the streets, they were still cluttered with garbage. It was as if old and new were in a clash, a struggle to fit in with each other.

Although I spoke the native tongue, my Arabic reading and writing skills were far below the level required for me to enter a public school. So I was enrolled in a private school that contained not more than 100 students. We were taught in an apartment with classrooms the size of a bedroom. All the walls around me begged for a fresh coat of paint and the gnarled linoleum floors made to look like a freak accident from an armed land mine. Proper desks were nonexistent. Instead we sat on a crude wooden chairs with a small table nailed to the side of the chair. Outside was a small courtyard measuring 40 feet at most, littered with piles of candy wrappers and an assortment of bottles from a popular soft drink. In spite of this, I tried to look at everything with an open mind, realizing that perhaps there was something beyond the glamour of fancy desks and classrooms.

Unfortunately there was something far worse than an under equipped school, something so hideous that it made me cringe at the thought of it. It dawned on me that it was the actual students that had created this chaos around the school. The cacophony of their laughter and jeering overwhelmed me. I was like the new kid on the block, but even after I had been there for several months the mockery continued. They didn't want to accept me, and naturally I didn't want to be accepted. They commented on my American accent saying, "Where's your cowboy hat, Yankee boy!" Even the teachers looked upon me as strange. They called me 'khawaga' which means foreigner in Arabic. I was like a stranger in my own land. The English teacher commented on my style of writing stating "Your American style of writing doesn't suit me, it's not proper".

Everyday was very hellish for me, and soon I lapsed into a coma of depression. Life basically had no meaning to me anymore, and everyday that passed was just another page in a never-ending story. One day as I was walking away from the school, I saw an old man sitting on the ground selling fruits and vegetables. The goods weren't in fantastic condition and the man himself didn't look too well off yet he looked content. I approached him and asked him how his sales were going and he said "Not too good, but then again I am better off than many other people who are in worse conditions than I am". His words of wisdom dumbfounded me. I realized that life was what we made out of it and that happiness was truly a state of mind. Eventually we moved back to the United States, but I never forgot my encounter with the wise old man.

A Twist of Faith"

A Twist of Faith"

Jawad took a long look at his speedometer before slowing down: 73 in a 55 zone. Fourth time in as many months. How could a guy get caught so often? When his car had slowed to 10 miles an hour, Jawad pulled over, but only partially. Let the cop worry about the potential traffic hazard. Maybe some other car will tweak his backside with a mirror.

The cop was stepping out of his car, the big pad in hand. Ali? Ali from mosque? Jawad sunk farther into his trench coat. This was worse than the coming ticket. A Muslim cop catching a guy from his own mosque. A guy who happened to be a little anxious to get home after a long day at the office. A guy that was scheduled to play cricket with him tomorrow. Jumping out of the car, he approached a man he saw every Friday, a man he'd never seen in uniform.

"Salaam,ya Ali. Fancy meeting you like this."

"Wasalaam, Jawad." No smile.

"Guess you caught me red-handed in a rush to see my wife and kids."

"Yeah, I guess."

Ali seemed uncertain. Good.

"I've seen some long days at the office lately. I'm afraid I've bent the rules a bit, just this once. Farah said something about chicken tikkah and kabobs tonight. Know what I mean?"

Jawad toed at a pebble on the pavement.

"I know what you mean. I also know that you have a reputation in our precinct."

Ouch! This was not going in the right direction. Time to change tactics.

"What'd you clock me at?"

"Seventy-one. Would you sit back in your car, please?"

"Now wait a minute here, Ali. I checked as soon as I saw you. I was barely nudging 65." The lie seemed to come easier with every ticket.

"Please, Jawad, in the car."

Flustered, Jawad hunched himself through the still-open door.

Slamming it shut, he stared at the dashboard. He was in no rush to open the window. The minutes ticked by. Ali scribbled away on the pad. Why hadn't he asked for a driver's license? Whatever the reason, it would be a month before Jawad ever sat near this cop again in the mosque. A tap on the door jerked his head to the left.

There was Ali, a folded paper in hand. Jawad rolled down the window a mere two inches, just enough room for Ali to pass him the slip.

"Thanks." Jawad could not quite keep the sneer out of his voice. Ali returned to his car without a word.

Jawad watched his retreat in the mirror. Jawad unfolded the sheet of paper. How much was this one going to cost? Wait a minute. What was this? Some kind of joke? Certainly not a ticket. Jawad began to read:

Dear Jawad,

Once upon a time I had a daughter. She was six when killed by a car. You guessed it - a speeding driver. A fine and three months in jail, and the man was free. Free to hug his daughters. All three of them. I only had one, and I'm going to have to wait until heaven before I can ever hug her again. A thousand times I've tried to forgive that man. A thousand times I thought I had. Maybe I did, but I need to do it again.

Even now, pray for me. And be careful, My son is all I have left.

Ali

Jawad twisted around in time to see Ali's car pull away and head down the road. Jawad watched until it disappeared. A full 15 minutes later, he, too, pulled away and drove slowly home, praying for forgiveness and hugging a surprised wife and kids when he arrived.

Life is precious. Handle with care.